Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in several processes in the body, including blood sugar control, muscle function, nerve messaging, and protein production. As with most vitamins and minerals, it is preferred to get your magnesium from food first, incorporating magnesium-rich foods like seeds, nuts, spinach, whole grains, yogurt, and legumes.
However, nearly half of Americans may not be meeting their estimated average requirement of magnesium from food. If you are unable to meet your needs or if you have a health condition or a dietary restriction that may impact your magnesium status, you may benefit from a magnesium supplement. For example, those with certain gastrointestinal disorders that cause constipation, pregnant and breastfeeding people, people with diabetes, and older adults may have increased magnesium requirements.
If a healthcare provider has recommended you start a magnesium supplement, be sure to fully understand the ideal form and dosage best suited for you and your needs. Magnesium supplements are available in many different forms, each with different benefits, absorbability, and effects on the body. For this round-up, we prioritized supplements that are third-party tested and contain research-backed forms of magnesium in appropriate dosages.
Is a Magnesium Supplement Beneficial?
If you are magnesium deficient or have a health condition that puts you at risk for deficiency, a magnesium supplement may be beneficial.
Verywell Fit Approved Magnesium Supplements
- Best Overall: Pure Encapsulations Magnesium is third-party tested and contains magnesium glycinate, a well-tolerated form more easily absorbed and utilized by your body.
- Best Powder: If you’re looking for a powder version of a magnesium supplement, try Thorne’s Magnesium Bisglycinate Powder, which is NSF Certified for Sport.
Always speak with a healthcare professional before adding a supplement to your routine to ensure that the supplement is appropriate for your individual needs and which dosage to take.
People who do not consume balanced diets: People that have difficulty incorporating magnesium-rich foods like seeds, nuts, spinach, whole grains, yogurt, and legumes into their diets may be at higher risk for deficiency. If adding these foods is not feasible due to dietary restrictions or preferences, a supplement may be beneficial.
People with gastrointestinal issues: Gastrointestinal diseases such as celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, Ulcerative colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), may result in malabsorption that can lead to magnesium depletion, so in some cases, magnesium supplementation may be indicated. Additionally, magnesium citrate specifically may help to prevent and alleviate constipation, a common symptom of certain gastrointestinal diseases. Ella Soderholm, RN, MNT, says she primarily uses magnesium “for the beneficial effects it has on gut health, aiding in peristalsis, helping move food through your intestines and prevent[ing] constipation.”
People who suffer from migraines: While it is still a new area of research, it has been found that people who suffer from migraine headaches may have a lower level of magnesium in their blood and tissues when compared to those who do not suffer from migraines. The American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society now provide evidence-based guidelines stating that magnesium therapy may be effective for migraine prevention under the supervision of a healthcare provider. “Magnesium, in particular magnesium oxide, has also been studied in migraine headaches as an effective preventative nutraceutical”, states Ann Ming Yeh, MD.
People who are pregnant or breastfeeding: During pregnancy and lactation, a person’s magnesium needs increase to support not only themself, but their growing baby. If a new or pregnant parent is not meeting their magnesium needs from diet and a prenatal vitamin, it may be beneficial to speak to a healthcare provider about adding a magnesium supplement.
People with Diabetes: Because magnesium plays an important role in the insulin response system, magnesium deficiency can promote further insulin resistance in those with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, uncontrolled or prolonged elevated blood sugar in insulin-resistant and insulin-dependent diabetics can cause increased urinary output, resulting in increased losses of electrolytes, including magnesium. Some studies have shown that supplementing with magnesium may improve diabetes-related health measures; however, more research is needed. Be sure to speak to a healthcare provider to determine if a supplement may benefit you.
Older Adults: As we get older, there are a couple of scenarios that could lead to magnesium deficiency. One is an overall decrease in total dietary intake. If an older adult is unable to consume a varied diet, their risk of magnesium deficiency is greater. Another is that, as we age, our bodies’ ability to properly and efficiently absorb all nutrients decreases. And third, there are certain medications that may alter magnesium levels, increasing the risk for magnesium deficiency.
People with a history of alcohol dependence: In alcohol use disorder, vitamin and mineral deficiencies are very common. This is often due to the individual having poor dietary intake in addition to gastrointestinal issues (such as vomiting and diarrhea), increased urination, and potential renal dysfunction. These side effects can cause low levels of vitamins, minerals, and electrolytes, including magnesium.
Who May Not Benefit From a Magnesium Supplement
For healthy adults, the body is able to excrete excess magnesium from food; however, over-supplementation of magnesium can lead to negative side effects, including diarrhea. Additionally, there are certain populations that may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of excess magnesium supplementation, including:
People with impaired kidney function: When someone has impaired kidney function, their ability to properly remove excess nutrients, such as magnesium, can be insufficient, which may lead to magnesium toxicity.
Infants and children: It is important to always work with a healthcare provider when starting any form of vitamin and mineral supplementation, especially in children.
People consuming adequate amounts of magnesium-rich foods and beverages: If you are eating a well-balanced diet, you are likely meeting your total magnesium requirements; therefore, additional supplementation is not necessary.
People taking certain medications: Magnesium supplements have the potential to interact with a number of medications. Such medications include diuretics, Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs), antibiotics, and bisphosphonates. If you are taking any of the above medication types, it is important to discuss any magnesium supplementation with a healthcare provider before starting one to ensure safety.
Pure Encapsulations Magnesium tops our list because it is from a trusted, third-party-tested brand and contains a preferable form of magnesium. Magnesium glycinate typically has increased tolerability and absorption because the magnesium is bound to the amino acid glycine. This makes magnesium in a chelated form which can get absorbed better in the intestine.
Best Overall
Pure Encapsulations Magnesium (Glycinate)
Well-tolerated form
Gluten-free, vegan, non-GMO and free of major allergens
Third-party tested and produced in an NSF-registered facility
Some may need up to four capsules
Due to its tolerability, many are able to dose at higher amounts with minimal gastrointestinal distress and other side effects when compared to other forms of magnesium, making magnesium glycinate the preferred type for correcting deficiencies.
Pure Encapsulations tests all raw materials for identity, potency, contaminants, and heavy metals. They utilize third-party laboratories and are NSF-registered as a facility. In addition to the rigorous testing, this magnesium glycinate is certified gluten-free, non-GMO and vegan. Each capsule contains 120 milligrams, providing nearly one-third of the RDA for magnesium for most adults.
Price at time of publication: $41 for 180 count ($4.39 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium Glycinate | Form: Capsule | Servings Size: 1-4 per day | Magnesium per capsule: 120 mg |Servings per Container: 3 size options (90, 180, 360)
Magnesium Bisglycinate from Thorne is the magnesium glycinate form we love but in a powder version that you can easily mix with water. As mentioned earlier, magnesium glycinate is a well-tolerated and highly absorbable form of magnesium. The amino acid glycine may enhance the quality of sleep in humans, making this magnesium glycinate powder a great addition to help wind down in a bedtime routine.
Best Powder
Thorne Research Magnesium Bisglycinate Powder
NSF Certified for Sport
200 milligrams in a single scoop
Well tolerated form
Additional ingredients include citric acid and monk fruit
Thorne’s Magnesium Bisglycinate contains 200 milligrams per serving and is free of major allergens, including gluten, dairy, and soy. It is sweetened with monk fruit, a non-nutritive sugar substitute. This product is third-party tested and NSF certified for Sport, making it a great choice for athletes in need of a magnesium supplement.
Price at time of publication: $44 for 60 count ($1.36 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium Glycinate | Form: Powder | Servings Size: 1 scoop or 3 grams | Magnesium per serving: 200 mg |Servings per Container: 60
For those that prefer supplements in a liquid form, try NutriCology’s Magnesium Chloride Liquid with 67 milligrams of easily absorbable magnesium per ½ teaspoon. This product has been ConsumerLab approved and is manufactured in an NSF-registered facility, making it a quality choice.
Best Liquid
NutriCology Magnesium Chloride Liquid
ConsumerLab Approved
Can add into favorite beverage
Metallic taste
Recommended dosing of 2-3 times daily
Be sure to measure your dose carefully and mix it with at least 8 ounces of your favorite beverage. This will ensure proper dilution and minimize the metallic taste.
Price at time of publication: $20 for 8 fl oz ($0.21 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium Chloride | Form: Liquid | Servings Size: ½ teaspoon | Magnesium per serving: 66.5 mg | Servings per Container: 94
Magnesium Citrate is another readily available form of magnesium that you will see on store shelves. It is well absorbed and touted for its ability to treat constipation due to its potential laxative effect. Magnesium citrate pulls water from the body into the gastrointestinal tract, which can increase gut motility, creating a laxative effect. Be sure to consult a healthcare provider if you want to use magnesium citrate for chronic constipation, as it can lead to dehydration and an imbalance of key electrolytes.
Best for Constipation
Pure Encapsulations Magnesium (Citrate)
Third-party tested and produced in an NSF-registered facility
Certified gluten-free, vegan, and non-GMO
May help to alleviate constipation
May cause cramping and diarrhea
Our pick for magnesium citrate is from Pure Encapsulations. Pure Encapsulations tests all raw materials for identity, potency, contaminants, and heavy metals utilizing third-party laboratories in addition to being an NSF-registered facility. This magnesium citrate is certified gluten-free, non-GMO, and vegan.
At 150 milligrams per capsule, Pure Encapsulations Magnesium Citrate can be a good option to treat a magnesium deficiency or constipation when directed by a healthcare professional. Typical side effects of magnesium citrate include cramping, gas, and nausea, so be on the lookout for those and share any issues with a healthcare provider.
Price at time of publication: $18 for 90 count ($1.25 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium Citrate | Form: Capsule | Servings Size: 1-4 per day | Magnesium per capsule: 150 mg | Servings per Container: 2 size options (90, 180)
Thorne combined two highly bioavailable forms of magnesium and placed them into one capsule. This supplement contains 135 milligrams of magnesium per capsule with 55 milligrams of magnesium citrate and 80 milligrams of magnesium malate. Adequate magnesium levels are essential for optimal muscle function, making it an important mineral for muscle support.
Best for Muscle Support
Thorne Magnesium CitraMate
Blend of magnesium citrate and malate
Gluten, diary, and soy-free
May cause gastrointestinal symptoms for some
While more research is needed, some studies have found that magnesium supplementation may improve performance in both aerobic and anaerobic exercises. Thorne’s Magnesium CitraMate is free of major allergens, including gluten, dairy, and soy.
Price at time of publication: $17 for 90 count ($5.29 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: 2 types (citrate and malate) | Form: Capsule | Servings Size: 1-3 daily | Magnesium per capsule: 135 mg | Servings per Container: 30-90
Metagenics Mag L-Threonate features magnesium L-threonate as Magtein®. Magtein® is a patented combination of magnesium and a compound of vitamin C, threonic acid. This combination provides a form of magnesium that may have a higher ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. While research is limited, some studies suggest a potential benefit of magnesium L-threonate and cognitive health.
Best for Cognitive Support
Metagenics Mag L-Threonate
USP Verified and NSF Certified
Non-GMO, gluten-free, and vegetarian
Divided dosing is recommended
Metagenics products are made in a USP verified and NSF registered facility. They test all of their supplements before printing the label and provide full transparency of all testing results on each supplement, providing quality assurance. Additionally, their products are gluten-free, non-GMO, and made without artificial sweeteners.
Price at time of publication: $85 for 120 count ($0.71 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium L-Threonate | Form: Capsule | Servings Size: 2-3 | Magnesium per capsule: 49 mg | Servings per Container: 40-60
To address differing absorbability and function between various forms of magnesium, Klaire Labs developed Mag Complete, a blend of four different forms of magnesium in a single supplement. Klaire Labs Mag Complete boasts 240 milligrams of elemental magnesium in two capsules. The complex comprises a mix of magnesium aspartate, magnesium malate, magnesium taurate, and magnesium succinate.
Best Magnesium Complex
Klaire Labs Mag Complete
Four forms of magnesium in one supplement
Free of major allergens
Recommended dosage of 2 capsules twice daily
No third-party testing listed
The vegetarian capsule is free of common allergens, including dairy, eggs, fish, shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, gluten, soy, and yeast. It is also free of artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives. The recommended dosage of four capsules per day provides 480 milligrams, exceeding the RDA of 420 milligrams for men and 320 milligrams for women, respectively, as outlined for healthy adults aged 31 years and older. Be sure to check with a healthcare provider to ensure this high dosage is suitable for your needs.
Price at time of publication: $19 for 120 count ($3.16 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium succinate, taurinate, malate, and citrate complex | Form: Capsule | Servings Size: 2 capsules | Magnesium per capsule: 120 mg | Servings per Container: 60
If you are looking for a chewable magnesium supplement, try Trace Minerals Magnesium Gummies. We like that these gummies are ConsumerLab approved, which is one of our top third-party testers. Trace Minerals is gluten-free, and agar is used instead of gelatin making them certified vegan, kosher, and halal. They have some organic ingredients, including organic black carrots that are used for coloring.
Best Gummy
Trace Minerals Magnesium Gummies Watermelon Flavor
Certified vegan
No artificial colors or sweeteners
ConsumerLab approved
1.5 grams of sugar per chew
Lower dose per chew
One gummy provides 84 milligrams of magnesium citrate, the form of magnesium that can have a laxative effect. These gummies contain inulin which can act as a prebiotic to help support gut health. However, as a fermentable carbohydrate (also called FODMAPs), people with irritable bowel syndrome may be sensitive to foods and supplements that have inulin.
Each gummy has 1.5 grams of sugar. This may be something to keep in mind, especially if you are taking more than one gummy vitamin per day, as this sugar can add up. If you want another flavor besides watermelon, these gummies also come in peach and tangerine flavors.
While gummies can be an appealing supplement option for kids, remember to check with a healthcare professional before giving a child a magnesium gummy (or any other supplement).
Price at time of publication: $20 for 120 count ($6 per serving)
Key specs:Magnesium Type: Magnesium citrate | Form: Gummy | Servings Size: 1 gummy | Magnesium per gummy: 84 mg | Servings per Container: 120
How We Select Supplemets
Our team works hard to be transparent about why we recommend certain supplements; you can read more about our dietary supplement methodology here.
We support supplements that are evidence-based and rooted in science. We value certain product attributes that we find to be associated with the highest quality products.
It’s important to note that the FDA does not review dietary supplements for safety and effectiveness before they go to market. Our team of experts has created a detailed, science-backed methodology to choose the supplements we recommend.
What to Look For
Third-Party Testing
Supplements that are third-party tested are sent to a lab where they are tested to ensure they contain what they say they contain and are not contaminated with specific high-risk, common contaminants. However, it’s important to note:
- Third-party testing does not test to see if a product is effective or safe for everyone, and it does not ensure the supplement will not interact with other supplements or medications.
- Not all third-party testing is created equal. It is not uncommon for supplement companies to pay labs for certificates after conducting minimal to no testing.
- The third-party certifications we can trust are: ConsumerLab.com, NSF, and USP. However, these certifications are difficult to obtain and/or expensive for manufacturers, so many companies choose not to get their products tested by one of these three organizations.
- Sometimes products tested by these three companies are more expensive to try to offset the cost they pay for certification.
- Just because a supplement is not tested by one of these three companies, it does not mean it’s a bad product. We recommend doing some research on the reputability of the manufacturer and calling up the manufacturer and their testing lab to determine their protocols and decide if you feel comfortable consuming the supplement.
Form
Shopping for a magnesium supplement can be overwhelming. Not only can a magnesium supplement come in a tablet, capsule, cream, or powder, but that same supplement can come in a variety of different forms. Different magnesium forms include magnesium glycinate, citrate, threonate, malate, and chloride.
The following are all bioavailable forms of magnesium (meaning our body can absorb and utilize them) that differ slightly in absorption rate and function:
- Magnesium Glycinate: Typically well tolerated at high doses, magnesium glycinate is a suitable option for treating magnesium deficiencies. The amino acid glycine may enhance the quality of sleep in humans, which may make it a good option for sleep and relaxation. In this form, the magnesium is bound to glycine to form chelated magnesium, which is absorbed better than other forms of magnesium.Magnesium Citrate: Magnesium citrate pulls water from the body into the gastrointestinal tract, which can increase gut motility, creating a laxative effect. This form may good a good option for alleviating constipation.Magnesium L-threonate: Studied for cognitive health due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier.Magnesium Malate: May be the preferred form of magnesium for muscle function, repair, and support.Magnesium Chloride: A generally well-tolerated, bioavailable option when looking to improve magnesium status.Magnesium Oxide: May be beneficial in the prevention and management of headaches and migraines.
It is important to choose the best form and dosage based on your specific needs. According to Soderholm, she “uses different types of magnesium depending on my client’s needs. Sometimes I may implement it for stress and its calming effect, while other times I use it for constipation and sluggish bowels.”
Ingredients and Potential Interactions
It is essential to carefully read the ingredient list and nutrition facts panel of a supplement to know which ingredients and how much of each ingredient is included relative to the recommended daily value of that ingredient. Please bring the supplement label to a healthcare provider to review the different ingredients contained in the supplement and any potential interactions between these ingredients and other supplements and medications you are taking.
Chelated Magnesium
You may see the term “chelated magnesium” on supplements. It simply means the magnesium is bound to another substance, like glycine in magnesium glycinate. Chelated magnesium is considered to have a higher absorption rate because it can bypass the usual way magnesium gets absorbed.
There are several medications on the market today that can potentially interact with magnesium supplements and therefore affect your overall magnesium status. If you are taking any of the below medications, be sure to speak to a healthcare provider about your magnesium intake.
Diuretics: If you are on chronic treatment with diuretics such as Lasix®, Bumex®, Aquazide H®, Edecrin®, or Aldactone®, be sure to speak to a healthcare provider regarding your magnesium status. Certain diuretics can lead to an increased loss of magnesium, while others may cause you to retain magnesium and not excrete it properly.
Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPI): The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises healthcare providers to measure the serum magnesium level in any patient on long-term PPI treatment as PPIs have been known to cause low levels of serum magnesium.
Antibiotics: Magnesium has the potential to bind to certain antibiotics, making them work less effectively. If taking antibiotics such as Declomycin®, Cipro®, Levaquin®, or Vibramycin®, it is advised to take the antibiotic at least two hours before or four to six hours after a supplement containing magnesium.
Bisphosphonates to treat osteoporosis: When taking oral bisphosphonates to treat osteoporosis, it is important to separate that dose with any magnesium-containing supplements by at least two hours as the magnesium has the potential to reduce total absorption of the medication.
Magnesium Dosage
The current Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) for magnesium from both food and supplements for adults are below listed by age and gender.
- 19-30 years: 400 milligrams (males), 310 milligrams (females), 350 milligrams (pregnancy), 310 milligrams (lactation)31-50 years: 420 milligrams (males), 320 milligrams (females), 360 milligrams (pregnancy), 320 milligrams (lactation)51+ years: 420 milligrams (males), 320 milligrams (females)
How Much is Too Much?
In addition to an AI or RDA, as outlined above, the FNB also establishes a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for various vitamins and nutrients. Exceeding the UL of magnesium from supplements can result in gastrointestinal distress, such as diarrhea, nausea, and cramping. Other symptoms of magnesium toxicity can include low blood pressure, vomiting, muscle weakness, irregular heartbeat, and cardiac arrest.
It is important to note that the ULs are only referring to magnesium ingested in the form of a supplement or medication and not from food, which can be effectively processed and excreted by the kidneys. It is high doses provided by supplements and medications that can lead to negative side effects and further health problems.
The following are the established Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for magnesium supplements only (not magnesium from food) based on age for both males and females:
- Birth to 12 months: None established1-3 years: 65 milligrams4-8 years: 110 milligrams9-18 years: 350 milligrams19+ years: 350 milligrams
Why Trust Verywell Fit
Brittany Scanniello RDN runs an integrative nutrition practice in Lafayette Colorado, Eat Simply Nutrition. She is constantly looking for nutraceutical alternatives to assist day-to-day concerns of her clients. With a background as a clinical pediatric gastrointestinal dietitian, magnesium was a supplement she worked with often and continues to do so. She emphasizes the importance of purity, safe dosages, and a quality product above all else when recommending any form of supplementation.
Frequently Asked Questions
- What foods have magnesium?
- You can achieve your recommended daily amount of magnesium by eating a variety of foods, as magnesium-rich foods are prevalent. As a good rule of thumb, foods that are higher in dietary fiber oftentimes provide a good amount of magnesium. Foods richest in magnesium include legumes, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables such as spinach, whole grains, yogurt, and soy milk. Additionally, some breakfast cereals are fortified with magnesium.
- How does magnesium help with sleep?
- The role magnesium plays in supporting optimal sleep is not fully understood. One possible explanation is that magnesium is a stimulator of GABA, a naturally occurring amino acid that works as a neurotransmitter. GABA is known to decrease activity in the nervous system, which can lead to relaxation.Some studies show that adequate magnesium status (from either food or supplementation) may help with sleep quality and duration. While there is some evidence that magnesium supplements specifically may help with sleep, more research is needed.
- Does magnesium make you poop?
- Magnesium salts can have a laxative effect by drawing water into the gastrointestinal tract, stimulating gastric motility, which may help alleviate constipation. Magnesium citrate is one of the more widely known forms used to treat constipation. Ming Yeh confirms, “in my gastroenterology clinic, I use magnesium citrate most often for constipation.”
- How long does it take magnesium citrate to work?
- Magnesium citrate works by creating a salt-concentrated environment in your small intestines. As a way to address the high concentration of salt, your body works to pull water into your small intestines, usually resulting in a bowel movement. Most often, dependent upon the magnesium citrate dose, the bowel movement will occur 30 minutes to four hours after ingesting the supplement.
- Does magnesium lower blood pressure?
- Magnesium, along with other electrolytes, plays an important role in blood pressure regulation. While some research studies have found magnesium supplementation to lower blood pressure, the evidence is inconclusive. In 2022, the FDA approved a health claim stating, “consuming a diet with adequate magnesium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure. However, the evidence is inconsistent and inconclusive.” More research is needed in this area before we can fully understand the effects of magnesium supplementation on the prevention of and treatment of cardiovascular disease, including hypertension.To manage and prevent high blood pressure, the American Heart Association recommends consuming a well-balanced, nutrient-dense diet that is low in sodium as well as maintaining a healthy weight, managing stress, engaging in regular physical activity, and reducing high-risk lifestyle behaviors like smoking and drinking.
You can achieve your recommended daily amount of magnesium by eating a variety of foods, as magnesium-rich foods are prevalent. As a good rule of thumb, foods that are higher in dietary fiber oftentimes provide a good amount of magnesium. Foods richest in magnesium include legumes, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables such as spinach, whole grains, yogurt, and soy milk. Additionally, some breakfast cereals are fortified with magnesium.
The role magnesium plays in supporting optimal sleep is not fully understood. One possible explanation is that magnesium is a stimulator of GABA, a naturally occurring amino acid that works as a neurotransmitter. GABA is known to decrease activity in the nervous system, which can lead to relaxation.
Magnesium salts can have a laxative effect by drawing water into the gastrointestinal tract, stimulating gastric motility, which may help alleviate constipation. Magnesium citrate is one of the more widely known forms used to treat constipation. Ming Yeh confirms, “in my gastroenterology clinic, I use magnesium citrate most often for constipation.”
Magnesium citrate works by creating a salt-concentrated environment in your small intestines. As a way to address the high concentration of salt, your body works to pull water into your small intestines, usually resulting in a bowel movement. Most often, dependent upon the magnesium citrate dose, the bowel movement will occur 30 minutes to four hours after ingesting the supplement.
Magnesium, along with other electrolytes, plays an important role in blood pressure regulation. While some research studies have found magnesium supplementation to lower blood pressure, the evidence is inconclusive. In 2022, the FDA approved a health claim stating, “consuming a diet with adequate magnesium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure. However, the evidence is inconsistent and inconclusive.” More research is needed in this area before we can fully understand the effects of magnesium supplementation on the prevention of and treatment of cardiovascular disease, including hypertension.
